Bianca was a woman ‘of strong and great spirit and prudent counsel’–from the journal of Pope Pius II

Bianca (trans. white) Maria Visconti was born on March 31, 1425, in the castle of Settimo Pavese, the daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti and his mistress Agnese Del Maino. Her father harbored high hopes for her, as she was his only surviving child. Filippo had his first wife, Beatrice, rightly or wrongly, accused of adultery, put on trial, and executed in 1418. In 1428, he planned to marry Mary, the daughter of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy, and Mary of Burgundy. Before the wedding, he asked the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund for permission to legitimize Bianca, create her a countess and to leave her some of his territories.

Initially, the Emperor refused, but after Filippo paid him 1,200 ducats, Sigismund conceded. Bianca grew up in the Visconti castle of Abbiategrasso under the guidance of her mother. In the early fifteenth century, Italy adopted humanist education for both boys and girls. This method benefited Bianca, who received instruction in a wide range of subjects.

They included Latin, grammar, rhetoric, reading or elocution, composition, penmanship and literature, poetry, science, mathematics, Christian doctrine and ethics, Greek, music, art, drawing, physical culture, dance, morality, and religious practice. The library at Abbiategrasso contained a variety of works, including Latin classics, French and Provençal narrative texts, books in Italian vernacular and scientific and didactic works. Bianca and her father shared a love of reading, horseback riding, and hunting.

When Venice attacked Milan in 1431, Filippo turned to the skilled military commander and condottieri Francesco Sforza for aid, promising him his daughter in marriage with the prospect of succeeding him as Duke of Milan. He included a dowry of Cremona, Castelletto and Bosco Frugarolo. From this point forward, Sforza directed his ambitions towards this goal. When Emperor Sigismund visited Italy at the end of the third war with Venice to receive the iron crown of Lombardy, a betrothal ceremony took place on February 23, 1432. It is uncertain whether Bianca and her mother were present in Milan for this ceremony.

Not long after, Niccolo Piccinino, another powerful condottieri who fought for Milan, pressured Filippo to marry Bianca to his son Carlo. Filippo did not entirely trust Sforza and tried to get the pope to annul the betrothal. Over the next several years, he promised Bianca to one and then the other husband. Facing a weakened position after Francesco joined Venice against Milan, Filippo feared the division of his domains and turned to Sforza to arbitrate between Venice and Milan.

Again, he promised the hand of Bianca and added the city of Pontremoli to her dowry. Sforza accepted and brokered a peace agreement at Capriana, which included his marriage. The wedding took place in the Monastery’s chapel of San Sigismondo at Cremona on October 25, 1441. Days of celebration followed, including a sumptuous banquet, several tournaments and jousts, allegories, and a reproduction in a cake of the Torrazzo, the bell tower of Cremona Cathedral.

At the time of the wedding, chroniclers described Bianca as sweet, kind, and prudent, well educated, tactful, and a good woman. Seventeen years old to Sforza’s forty, within a few months, she won over her husband. A biographer wrote at the time that Bianca, ‘being a lady of great judgment, would have no other husband than Count Francesco because of his valor.’ Although the alliance had been a matter of politics, it proved to be a fortunate marriage.

The chronicler Sabadino states: ‘Her pure nature no less than her fair complexion accorded well with her name.’ Bianca devoted herself entirely to her husband’s interests, and he profited by her advice. She would be renowned for her liberality and her kind manners. Despite her husband’s infidelities (he sired at least seventeen illegitimate children), Sabadino says an ‘inexhaustible matrimonial love’ existed between the couple and he quotes Francesco as saying he had good cause to thank God ‘for having honored him with a wife who had not her equal in the world’.

Francesco appreciated the talents of his young wife so completely that when he departed to fight in Abruzzo in May 1442, he appointed Bianca regent of the Marca Anconitana in a highly complementary proclamation. She proved to be skillful in dealing with men. Determined to accompany her husband in his life’s adventures, she showed her support in the tough fight he faced in the Marca.

Her first son, Galeazzo, was born in January 1444 and her favorite daughter, Ippolita, in 1446. In 1445, Bianca’s father revealed his intention to reconquer her dowry city of Cremona, threatening to exclude Francesco from the succession to the duchy of Milan. This conflict gave Venice a pretext to intervene in Lombardy, forcing Filippo to beg his son-in-law for aid once again. When Filippo died on August 13, 1447, a succession crisis ensued, with looting and destruction of Visconti properties in Milan. As Bianca and Francesco marched to Cremona, the Milanese proclaimed the Ambrosian Republic.

The new government, comprised twenty-four captains and defenders of liberty, faced the continuation of the war against Venice and a difficult defense against pretenders to the succession, such as Bianca’s husband and Louis, Duke of Savoy. The Republic offered Francesco the title of Captain General, which he accepted against the advice of his wife. Three years of fighting ensued to defend what remained of the duchy of Milan and to reconquer cities that had broken away.

Francesco fought sometimes for Milan, sometimes for Venice, but he always kept his eyes on the prize of the ducal throne. Bianca did everything in her power to aid her husband, raising funds and forming relationships with those who opposed the Republic. In May 1448, Sforza was consolidating his conquest of Pavia, which had offered him the title of Count. In his absence, the Venetians attacked Cremona to gain access to its bridge with the goal of reaching Pavia.

Bianca ordered reinforcements and, acting as a bold captain, donned her parade armor. Along with the people and her troops, she rushed toward the bridge, taking part in the battle until darkness fell. The reinforcements eventually arrived and repulsed the enemy. Once the danger passed, she moved to Pavia with most of her family, her husband’s family, and her mother’s relatives, settling in the Visconti castle.

From here, she took care of her family, raised money and loans, and established a network of relationships with the opponents of the Republic to procure support for her husband. She gave birth to her second son, Filippo, in 1449. Having made peace with Venice, Sforza attacked Milan, whose captain, Carlo Gonzaga, had abandoned it, and the city subsequently made peace with Venice.

Francesco refused to recognize this treaty and besieged Milan, where starvation afflicted the city. The people of the city assassinated the Venetian ambassador as they blamed the Venetian Republic for the famine. Following a meeting of the nobles and citizens, they asked Francesco to rule Milan. He accepted, and the city surrendered on February 27, 1450. Historians commented the city capitulated out of hunger and not love.

Although Francesco coveted the ducal throne of Milan for many years, his claim through his wife was dubious, as there was no documentary evidence to support it. Bianca’s father had made a deed of gift to Francesco, but this did not carry the same weight as an imperial diploma. And the impression he had won Milan through conquest would have been difficult to remove. He therefore had to prove he owed his position to popular consent.

The Milanese solemnly declared that Milan, upon Francesco’s death, would pass to no one other than Bianca Maria and her sons. This was further strengthened by at least an outward form of popular election. Bianca and Francesco entered the city on horseback and made their way to the courtyard of Arengo. The new duke received the scepter, the Visconti banner, the seal, the sword, and the keys to the city. Because the mayors and prosecutors of the municipality invested Francesco with the ducal title through the swearing of oaths, it is one of the first instances of a ducal title being conferred by the people.

Bianca and Francesco engaged in intense diplomatic work to consolidate their power. Bianca devoted herself to tracking down her father’s assets and renovating the old Visconti ducal palace of Arengo, which became the principal residence of the ducal family. They also lived in the castles of Milan, Pavia, Abbiategrasso, and Vigevano. The court of Milan during the reign of Bianca and Francesco was the ideal of domestic life, remarkable for its happiness and modesty.

More children were born to Bianca after the duke’s accession to the ducal throne. They included Sforza Maria in 1451, Ludovico (known as El Moro or the Moor for his dark complexion) in 1452, Francesco Galeazzo in 1453/4, Ascanio in 1455, Elisabetta in 1456 and Ottaviano in 1458. The arrangements of the court were remarkably simple. Bianca had four ladies-in-waiting, and her daughter Ippolita had one.

Both Bianca and the duke took an intense interest in the education of their children. They hired only the most prominent men of letters as tutors. When absent from her children, Bianca required full reports of their progress. Her daughter Ippolita was proficient in Greek and in ‘all agreeable learning.’ The Sforza children’s most notable accomplishment was the art of making speeches at state ceremonies. Bianca reminded the tutors that their task was to form princes rather than men of letters. She endeavored to instill in her children the attributes of justice, benevolence, humanity, and courtesy.

Because of the simple habits of the duke and duchess, they were unusually accessible to their subjects. They described Bianca as most gracious in giving audiences, and she visited the chief citizens in their homes. She won many hearts with her frequent intercession on behalf of those who had incurred her husband’s displeasure. Some of their children would accompany the duchess and duke wherever they went.

Bianca devoted herself to charitable works, especially assisting mistreated women. Noted for her piety, she made many long journeys on pilgrimage to Loretto and other shrines to give thanks for favors obtained through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the saints. In 1456, Bianca and the duke founded the Ospedale Maggiore. It has been in constant use since then and still holds its place as one of the best managed hospitals in Italy.

Bianca engaged in cultural patronage as well. For example, at Bianca’s request, Antonio Cornazzano composed his encomium of women, the De Mulieribus adirandis, in 1467. This work was a rebuttal to such misogynistic works as those of Jean de Meun and Guillaume de Lorris’ popular Roman de la Rose published in 1365.

Bianca worried about her second son Filippo, thinking he was spoiled and wasting away in idleness. Ludovico was her favorite son, and she took great interest in his welfare and training. She possibly believed he would one day rule Milan. In 1455, they betrothed their daughter Ippolita to Alfonso of Aragon, Duke of Calabria and son of Ferdinand I, King of Naples. The marriage took place in 1465. Galeazzo had a good relationship with his sister Ippolita but did not trust his younger brothers, perhaps with good reason. Bianca just wanted her children to get along well.

In the spring of 1452, a new Venetian campaign begun against Milan. Francesco left to take part in military operations, leaving Bianca to take over diplomatic, administrative, and political duties in his stead. A constant stream of correspondence flew between husband and wife. Francesco trusted her decisions and advice, but sometimes they disagreed. She ruled judiciously, energetically, and wisely, but her methods lacked political cohesion, making it necessary for Francesco to return. He brokered the Peace of Lodi in April 1454.

Bianca tended to listen to the pleas of the nobility and the clergy, confirming their existing privileges. When Francesco returned, he inaugurated a policy of taking a stand against the feudal nobility, limiting their authority and privileges, and turned his government in favour of the mercantile bourgeoisie. The duke supported the call to crusade against the Turks in 1459, even though he harbored doubts about the expedition. Bianca, on the other hand, went to Mantua with all of her children to pay homage to the pope, and obtained from Pius II benefits for monasteries, privileges for new charitable places and for her Ospedale Maggiore.

Bianca did not approve of her husband’s diplomatic policies regarding John of Anjou’s attack against the king of Naples, and she did not want Francesco to abandon his alliance with the French king. None of these issues detracted from Francesco’s esteem for his wife. Because he had little faith in his eldest son Galeazzo, he arranged for Bianca to choose his successor and for her to govern in conjunction with his heir.

Francesco’s health declined, starting in 1461. In the following year, he suffered a severe attack of gout and dropsy. This illness cast a shadow over the family as rebellions broke out and Galeazzo’s disturbing behavior caused anxiety for his parents. By 1463, Galeazzo had his own household establishment, separate from his parents, and amusement and luxury appeared to be his primary concern. Even before he became duke, reports were widespread of Galeazzo’s wild and egotistical behavior. Bianca’s mother wrote to her about her grandson’s willful conduct as early as 1459. A year later, Francesco had to admit, “Galeazzo fears no one and does whatever enters his head.”

Knowing his illnesses were a cause for concern, Francesco gradually involved Bianca in the duchy’s government. The castellans swore an oath of loyalty to Bianca, confirming her co-regency. Galeazzo left to join a military expedition of King Louis XI of France. Ippolita and Sforza Maria went to Naples for a prearranged double wedding. Bianca’s mother Agnese died in December 1465.

Francesco died on March 8, 1466, at sixty-five. His body lay in state for two days at Arengo. Bianca recalled Galeazzo from France and quickly summoned the Secret Council to exact an oath of allegiance. In addition, she wrote to the chief powers of Italy, requesting their aid in maintaining the young duke on his throne. The king of France offered his immediate support.

By the time Galeazzo arrived in Milan, all was quiet. Bianca’s swift actions had sustained a peaceful transition of power to her son without incident. Until November 1467, Galeazzo ruled Milan with his mother. After this date, Bianca’s name no longer appears on official documents. The breach between mother and son soon widened.

Disagreements arose between Bianca and Galeazzo, not because of political issues, but because of his rash and impulsive conduct, which was the opposite of his prudent and cautious father. Bianca took defensive action by having herself recognized as the lord of her dowry city of Cremona, allowing her the option to leave Milan and safely retire if their disagreements became intolerable. She slowly withdrew from affairs of state.

The situation began seriously unraveling following Galeazzo’s marriage to Bona of Savoy, the sister of King Louis XI’s queen, Charlotte. As he prepared for the nuptials, he maintained some correspondence with his mother, but Bianca was ill and could only offer some suggestions for Bona’s household. By now, her health suffered, and she had no money. She resorted to selling some of her jewels.

By mid-May, Bianca went to Cremona for a few weeks. Bianca and Ippolita returned to Milan just before the wedding, traveling slowly because of her weakness. The wedding took place on July 5, 1468, with Bianca in attendance. She started corresponding with her new daughter-in-law. During the rest of the summer, letters between mother and son continued, mostly concerning personal matters related to the ducal family. Following the wedding, Bianca and Ippolita gradually traveled to Tortona. She then accompanied her daughter, taking her leave as Ippolita returned to her husband in Naples.

In August, she made a pilgrimage to a shrine in Valenza and then slowly made her way toward Cremona. By the winter of 1468, Galeazzo had decided to oust his mother from government, maneuvering to relegate his mother to a secondary role, threatening the last courtiers who remained loyal to her, violating their correspondence, starting a dispute over her dowry city of Cremona, and finally ordering her to leave the city.

Many of Bianca’s friends believed her son mistreated her by sending her away. The Neapolitan king in particular held a grudge against Galeazzo. Bianca considered departing for Venice and wrote to the king of Naples, who favored deposing Galeazzo. She intended to visit another shrine for healing, but at Melegnano, Bianca’s health took a turn for the worst. The letters between mother and son show squabbling, but Galeazzo constantly inquired about her health, and he instructed the ducal doctors to do everything in their power for his mother.

By mid-October, it was clear Bianca was dying, and the children gathered at her side. Galeazzo arrived on October 20. At her sickbed, Bianca bequeathed to him Cremona with the stipulation that he share its revenues with his brothers. Among her last words to her son: ‘I commend to you my Milanese and all our other subjects.’ She died on October 23, 1468.

Galeazzo sent written announcements of her death to many rulers of Europe. Her exequies ‘were great and worthy, and she was escorted and mourned by all this land.’ They buried her in Milan Cathedral next to her husband. Rumors immediately spread that Galeazzo had poisoned his mother because of his ambition to take over Cremona. He had supplied physicians to aid his mother and remained in constant communication with them during her illness. While the accusations remain unproven, the theory is plausible.

Bianca made hundreds of bequests to religious and charitable institutions. A woman of remarkable talents, she proved to be an excellent wife, mother, and sovereign. Until her death, Bianca kept the esteem and affection of her subjects. Her passing signified the end of the Visconti era of Milanese dukes.

Further reading: “A Renaissance Court: Milan Under Galeazzo Maria Sforza” by Gregory Lubkin, entry on Bianca Maria Visconti, Duchess of Milan in the Biographical Dictionary of Italians written by Franco Catalan, “A History of Milan Under the Sforza” by Cecilia M Ady, “Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England” edited by Diana Robin, Anne R. Larsen, and Carole Levine, “The Education of Women During the Renaissance” by Mary Agnes Cannon